Proposition 26

In reaction to the California 2010 ballots upcoming, over 90 state propositions were filed in hopes of getting through to the June and November ballots. Five met acceptance for June, and nine qualified for the upcoming November ballot. Voters of California must decide on how they want to vote. Each persons' decision should be an educated one by which they have considered thoroughly the opposing and supporting arguments. For this reason this paper will analyze one of the California propositions: Proposition 26.

The nine accepted propositions either modify or change the state constitution or contribute laws. These categories are known as initiated constitutional amendments and initiated state statutes, respectively. Proposition 26 is the latter. Prop 26, also known as the Supermajority Vote to Pass New Taxes and Fees Act is an effort to stop "hidden taxes". This proposition would supplant existing processes in the California Constitution, setting up higher requirements than the current simple majority vote.

Proposition 26 "requires that certain state fees be approved by two-thirds vote of Legislature and certain local fees be approved by two-thirds of voters" as well as "increases legislative vote requirement to two-thirds for certain tax measures, including those that do not result in a net increase in revenue, currently subject to majority vote." This proposition aspires to eradicate the loophole that allows politicians to give new taxes the title of "fees, then making the "fees" legible to pass with a simple majority vote.

Arguments in favor of Proposition 26 mainly focus on the fact that the "hidden tax" loophole will be shut down. The end of this loophole will bring the end of new taxes that could result up to amounts close to ten-billion dollars being deceptively taken by politicians. Closing the loophole would also prevent imposing fees on " food, gas, toys, water, cell phones, electricity, insurance, beverages, emergency services and entertainment."

Opponents of Prop 26 argue that the loophole is used with measure, in order to fee environmentally unsafe corporations that can cause public health problems. Without the loophole, it's argued, it will be much harder to fee these detrimental corporations because of the higher vote requirements; for example, polluting corporations will no longer have "pollution fees". Opposition of the initiative is also based on the argument that if an election is held every single time a new fee is proposed then overwhelming amounts of elections will cause more harm than good.

In class, our group argued to pass this proposition, and I will be taking that route as well. No matter how reasonable the purposes for which the "hidden tax" loophole is used, politicians have the power to deceive, and we're letting them. Also, how far will it go? Politicians are already planning to impose so-called "fees" on everyday consumer items. Why should we let them have the power to deceive us further? and how do we know where the pilfered funds are going, or if they're all going to reasonable ends? Proposition 26 lets the people know what the politicians they elected are doing, instead of the current situation: misleading the people the politicians are supposed to represent.

Funding Future Education

The Radical Reconstruction | Blog 1-3

The Civil War was one of the bloodiest struggles that America had ever witnessed. With over 600,000 dead troops, 20 billion dollars spent on the war, a decimated Southern economy, 3 million newly freed slaves, and political unrest still present, commotion and turmoil pervaded the lives of all Americans after the war’s end. The conflict hurt the South the worst, and with the Democrats’ influence faltering, it was up to the Republicans to retain stability. The Radical Republicans led the movement known as Radical Reconstruction. At the center of this movement was the goal of eradicating all racism and previous cultural tensions; however, going about this with such force and abruptness soon incurred strong opposition, as sentiments of racism still existed as more than just a residue.

In the Republican party there were radicals and moderates—it was mostly the radicals that held such strong ideals and who caused uproar among citizens (it was mostly Southern whites that opposed the reconstruction). Moderates and radicals both wanted to achieve equality and to stop discrimination against blacks in legal and political affairs, but disagreements were many on how to accomplish this. The Radicals wanted to confiscate Confederate land, overturn Confederate military and civilian leaders, interchange Southern governments with Union military rule, and govern the South with congressional law. These principles concerned many Southerners, given the fact that racism was still widely prevalent.

Despite the emancipation of slaves and the Union victory, inequality was still pressed forcibly upon African Americans. Some states, mostly Southern, passed laws which granted black codes, which in effect restricted possibilities for ex-slaves’ freedom. The laws encompassed by the black codes were dependant on the state, but generally speaking they were all of the same nature. Some even forced African Americans to work, under pressure of being arrested. Many codes were strict to the point that they inhibited almost every area of African Americans’ lives, offering virtually no freedom at all.

The black codes were just one example of the South’s fervent racism. The Radical Republicans, driven by their own fervor, wanted to shove their beliefs down the throats of obstinate Southerners and have the problem solved instantly, but it was only pouring gas on the flame. Although prejudice was a large driving force for the Southerners’ opposition to blacks’ rights, politics also contributed to their beliefs. Three million slaves were now free, and the South argued that if they could vote or hold tenure politics would be at an enormous slant. The political warfare was still in full-tilt, and it seemed that neither side was about to let down their guard. But in 1877 the Radical Reconstruction fell through as a result of its poor management, allowing racism to prevail for following decades.

The chief reason why the Radical Reconstruction fell through is because of its handling. Lincoln understood the sensitivity of the people and their closely held beliefs when he issued the Emancipation Proclamation; he made sure that the slave states within the Union would not balk and join the Confederacy. Reconstruction after the war was a fragile matter, and it was the Radical Republicans’ fault for not recognizing this. The consequence of the reconstruction failure was the racism that continued for another hundred years. But the question is, could the racism even be stopped? Could people let go of the dogma that they were raised upon and blind sighted by? I can’t know for sure, but I believe that the Republicans should have at least tried to ease Americans into equality. (All previous sources)

Franklin, John H.; Moss, Alfred A. From Slavery to Freedom: A History of African Americans. Alfred A. Knopf, 1994.

Richardson, Heather Cox. The Death of Reconstruction. Harvard University Press, 2001.

General Ulysses S. Grant | Blog 1-2

The Civil War was a famous conflict of American history involving the Union and Confederate sides. States with many slave-dependant industries seceded from the Union in fear of the new president’s (Abraham Lincoln) opposition to slavery. The North (Union) wanted to preserve the Union and the South (Confederacy) wanted independence, and from there the Civil War was ignited. During the struggle, one of the most important generals of the Union was General Ulysses S. Grant. I believe General Grant was the right man for the job because of his ability to maintain stability even in difficult situations. His headstrong leadership allowed soldiers to place their trust in him. Grant was not only a great leader, he also proved to be a brilliant military strategist.

General Ulysses’s first battle was a minor one, but it was just the start of his resume. It also revealed the beginnings of his bravery and determined leadership. Kentucky’s neutral stance in the conflict was undermined when Confederate troops took occupancy there. Grant led inexperienced soldiers against Brig. Gen. Gideon J. Pillow and soon claimed victory. Always at the front of his men, General Grant fearlessly headed the charge, and even had a horse shot from under him. It was his first real conflict and already the General’s keen abilities were beginning to show.

A few months after the Battle of Belmont Grant would lead two major victories against the Confederacy: the first being the Battle of Fort Henry, a humiliating defeat for the South. Exploiting the Tennessee River, General Ulysses ordered a naval bombardment while simultaneously attacking Fort Henry on foot. But before the army even had a chance to attack, the Confederates surrendered the fort when the bombardment ensued. Grant emerged as a resourceful strategist from the successful conflict. The Union navy continued on the following days to eradicate the South’s naval occupancy of the Tennessee River, allowing smooth passageway to Fort Donelson.

General Ulysses would go on to lead many victorious battles, and eventually command the Union military, but he would have to earn it. Struggles such as the Battle of Fort Donelson—where his notoriety grew and where he earned the nickname “Unconditional Surrender” Grant; the bloody Battle of Shiloh—where his unassailable determination and strategic skills allowed him to return with triumph after enduring a surprise attack; and the battle at Vicksburg—where he conducted a daring battle plan on to victory. When Grant was appointed general-in-chief for his aptitude, and he did suffer costly defeats, such as Cold Harbor, but it was Grant who would devastate the “Stonewall” Division of the Confederacy and who would force Robert E. Lee’s surrender at Appomattox Court House.

At the beginning of the war General Grant was just another face on the line of combat; just a leader of a decent sized unit… no one to turn a head for. But time passed and Grant’s portfolio grew, along with the army’s respect for him. I believe this respect was well earned. His masterful leadership, level head, unfailing determination, and keen strategizing skills were just what the general-in-chief of the Union military needed. I don’t know of a man better suited for his role, or who could’ve accomplished what he did. General Ulysses S. Grant’s infamy will no doubt survive many a century, and deservedly so.

Bunting, Josiah. Ulysses S. Grant. Throndike Press, 2004.

Haugen, Brenda. Ulysses S. Grant: Union General and U.S. President. Compass Point Books, 2005.

Abraham Lincoln | Blog 1-1

Abraham Lincoln was an easy going and levelheaded man whose likeable personality and sharp mind opened many opportunities for him. The strong intelligent leader that Lincoln eventually became known as wasn't a result of his upbringing. His parents in fact were actually two uneducated farmers, and his father illiterate. Lincoln did partly obtain his worldview from religion. He was never a regular churchgoer, but he did seem to have definite religious beliefs in his career. Although religion played a certain role in Lincoln's life, books were the only real mentor Abe ever had in his life. He was an ardent reader and would use writings to challenge his mind. Books and their ideas would eventually shape Abraham Lincoln’s worldview which would guide his decisions during the Civil War. (Lincoln)

Abraham Lincoln was born into poverty in the year 1809, to parents who lacked a formal education. He and his family lived in a one room log cabin. His father made a living as a carpenter. The Lincoln family attended church regularly, but Abe himself never fully devoted himself to a specific church. His parents' religious beliefs and activities did seem to have an effect on him, as he claimed he was "naturally anti-slavery". However, during the Civil War he tried not to tamper with slavery so as to preserve the Union, therefore after the secession he informed the Border States of this. Lincoln’s thoughtful mind allowed him to know not to scare any states into secession and maintain unity. (Abraham Lincoln: A Biography)

Religious background aided Abraham in matters other than the Civil War, too. The primary reason why he was elected was his stance on slavery. Lincoln firmly was against slavery. This was well known and was the chief reason for the secession of certain states. Although never an outspoken proponent of Christianity, the ideals of the Baptist church (anti-slavery in particular) that Abe was around during his childhood seemed to have an effect on his worldview. During his presidency Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, forbidding slavery in the Confederate states and ordering the freeing of slaves.

Another rather large contribution to Lincoln’s worldview was his fervor for reading. Abe only had little under a year of formal education, but he compensated with books. Throughout his childhood he would ritually borrow books, whetting his mind with information and ideas. Books even guided Lincoln essentially to his presidency. If hadn’t been for law books, his interest in politics never would have been ignited. Lincoln used his knowledge of law and his keen logic to outline to the people why slavery was wrong. Being a sturdy opponent of slavery, Abraham Lincoln moved smoothly along to become president.

Everyone has their own worldview. But it isn't taught to us, and we don't learn it in school. In most cases we just move through life and obtain various ideas to form our outlook on the world. So really we can't absolutely know all the sources that Abraham Lincoln assimilated to form his worldview, but we can know some. He was a great president, some even venture to say the greatest, and his decisions during his life and presidency can only be attributed to his worldview. (All previous sources)

Thomas, Benjamin P., Burlingame, Michael. Abraham Lincoln: A Biography. SIU Press, 2008.

Donald, David Herbert. Lincoln. Simon and Schuster, 1996.

2nd Semester; Renaissance Art | Blog 4-3

This semester we studied an array of topics, but one time in history stood out to me more than any other. Initiated in Italy, the prolific time of the Renaissance permeated Europe and the rest of the world. No other topic (that comes to mind) that we studied had such potency and influence—so much so that the names of artists of its time remain household names; Raphael, Michelangelo, Donatello, Da Vinci, Brunelleschi, and etcetera. Not only is the influence of the Renaissance astounding, but also the masterpieces it manufactured. The world famous Mona Lisa, the Sistine Chapel, The David, The Last Supper, the Vitruvian Man, The School of Athens, and the list continues…

My fascination with the Renaissance is the art. The developments of the Renaissance produced truly arresting images. Methods hatched in this time would offer the gateway for hyperrealism… intense detail to the extent of disbelief. Perhaps one of the best representations of the Renaissance realism is in Jan van Eyck’s The Arnolfini Portrait. The accurate recreations of reality that were so often featured during the Renaissance can be attributed to the emergence of certain techniques. The combination of perspective, proportion, contrast, and color proved to be revolutionary.

One of my favorite Renaissance artists is the lesser-known Caravaggio. His influence can be recognized in the works of greats such as Rembrandt. Possibly setting the standard for remarkable, Caravaggio’s art often featured sharp detail, realistic portrayal, deep contrast, and warm colors. The deep shadows, nighttime setting, and single light source were synonymous with Caravaggio—however, only during his time. Unfortunately, Caravaggio’s influence and style spread without his name attached to it, leading to the death of his fame and the proliferation of works resembling his own.

Providing at least a significant part of the moving force behind the revolution of the Renaissance was Religion. Often artists were commissioned to paint for churches and popes. The Sistine Chapel is a prime example of this. However, religion didn’t encourage art only in the aspect of generating jobs, but also from a theological approach. The great theologians and thinkers of the time offered new ideas, encouraging the following revivals, and no doubt as well as the artists.


I could never hope to produce anything the Renaissance artists created, and I continue to be amazed while browsing the artists and their works via the web. Sadly, western art has taken a turn for the worst it seems, but the art of the Renaissance will always be appreciated, even by the superficial eye.

The English Bill of Rights | Blog 4-2

An Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties of the Subject and Settling the Succession of the Crown, commonly called the English Bill of Rights of 1689, was a document that laid important foundations for following governments and constitutions. It provided the basis on which the concept of a constitutional monarchy would be established. Moreover, it provided the basis for what would become the United States Bill of Rights.


The struggle between Parliament and the king of England, James II, essentially produced the English Bill of Rights. James II was a very pious Catholic, so naturally he wanted to push for Catholic motives. He appointed Catholics to high offices and removed acts and declarations forbidding him to do so. Parliament was outraged at his actions, but decided to wait it out, as he was an old man, bound to die soon. However, when James and his Catholic wife had a son, Parliament needed another way to eradicate any potential for a Catholic monarch.


Parliament grew desperate; another Catholic monarchy would just create more religious clashes. James’ son-in-law and Dutch leader, William of Orange, was discreetly offered a proposition: to “invade” England in hopes of deposing James II. William accepted, and the ploy was successful, and casualties remained at a minimum. This event is known as the Glorious Revolution. With James out of the way, only one issue needed to be resolved: the unoccupied throne of the monarchy. (Maurice)


Parliament presented the throne to William of Orange and Mary, his wife and James’ daughter. William and Mary accepted the position along with the English Bill of Rights. This event can be identified as the end of the divine right of kings in England. It prohibited the king from raising armies without Parliament’s approval; Parliament gained the power to make laws and levy taxes; citizens were given the right to own arms; citizens were also affirmed with the right of having a jury trial. (Andrew; Charles)



The Bill of Rights evolved as a result of Parliament’s previous qualms with rulers. It was a fledgling development of the idea of checks and balances, a concept that would later be developed by countries and their constitutions. The establishing of the English Bill of Rights can also be recognized as history almost completely turning its back to ruler-driven religious persecution.

Ashley, Maurice. The Glorious Revolution of 1688. Published by Scribner, 1967.

Browning, Andrew; Douglas, D. Charles. English Historical Documents, 1660-1714. Published by Routledge, 1996.

The Peace of Westphalia | Blog 4-1

The animosity between Catholicism and Protestantism in addition to political motives ignited the Thirty Years’ War, a devastating conflict to all of Europe. Often called “the last of the religious wars”, The Thirty Years’ War began in 1618 and initially took place primarily in Germany. What was at first just a number of rebellions became a large conflict involving numerous other European countries. Luckily, before the withering states could completely wipe each other out, the Peace of Westphalia restored order. The Peace of Westphalia was not a single document, but it was in fact several treaties with the common goal of ending the conflict. (Wedgwood; Kennedy; Grafton)

Before the Thirty Years’ War, Henry IV of France assumed the throne. As he was a Huguenot, peace with the Calvinists and Catholics remained steady during his reign. However, when Ferdinand of Styria, a fervent Catholic, became king of Bohemia, Bohemian Calvinists were alarmed. They began to fear their rights as Protestants would be taken away. So when Ferdinand ascended to the role of Holy Roman Emperor two years later, Bohemian Calvinists’ took action.

In 1618 the Thirty Years’ War began when Calvinist rebels threw two Catholic royal officers out of a building into a pile of manure, approximately seventy feet from the ground. This episode is known as the “Defenestration of Prague”. This marks the beginning of the war. The rebellion soon escalated, and Ferdinand was stripped of his throne. The Bohemian Calvinist revolt extended to other Hapsburg-controlled provinces.

The initial conflict grew and soon many European countries became involved. The Danish king Christian IV, the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus, John George of Saxony, Poland, France, Germany, and many other countries and leaders participated in the great conflict. However, despite all the war and crisis, countries eventually saw it best to resolve the conflict. Treaty by treaty, the Peace of Westphalia began to develop. Brandenburg and Sweden agreed to a truce, German princes followed this example, Sweden Saxony signed, Bavaria signed with Sweden and France, the United Provinces and Spain signed (ending the Revolt of the Netherlands), and others continued to do the same. (Parker; Adams)

The states within the Holy Roman Empire could not have lived without the Peace of Westphalia. After the conflict, France was established the prominent power of Europe, and the Holy Roman Empire was no longer an entity. All German states now had the liberty to decide their own religion. Although peace ended the wars, many German states were devastated.

C. V. Wedgwood, Paul Kennedy, Anthony Grafton. The Thirty Years War. New York Review Books, 2005.


Geoffrey Parker, Simon Adams. The Thirty Years' War. Routledge, 1997.

Music in the Renaissance | Blog 3-1

The age of mankind dubbed the Renaissance (meaning "rebirth") is named rightly so. The Renaissance featured the arrival of great minds, ideas, and creations. For example, Renaissance art, an icon of it's time, is remembered today as a landmark of innovation and creativity; however, one area of art in the Renaissance has much been forgotten, and that is music. In contrast to the abrupt revolution in painting, the transformation of music during the Renaissance is recognized by slow changes in musical style, the gradual adaptation to new musical discoveries, and the introduction of new technology and new instruments.

One change of music during the Renaissance was the emergence of church music (or Sacred music). A common factor of musical change in the Renaissance is the driving force of the change; the new approaches to music can be attributed to the beliefs and ideas of that time—church music of the Renaissance reflects this cause and effect relationship. Musical discoveries which can be noted in the Renaissance church music are the explorations and experimentations with harmony. More and more it seemed that composers had a growing understanding of the relationship of notes—this enabled them to blend several complex components of a piece together in order to fully express creativity. Another element of the church music style was that is was sung a Capella (without instruments), the logic being: the focus should be the words and not the music.


As I noted musical change and music in general was propelled by the beliefs of the time, secular music during the Renaissance was also a result of philosophies, and it made its contributions to the development of music. More refined than the previous era, secular music had its improvements and growth, despite the church's dominant position during the Renaissance. Madrigals, often regarded as one of the distinguishing facets of secular Renaissance music, was a popular style of music which involved vocals accompanied by instrumental pieces and which resisted repetition. Other traits of secular music were masses, motets, song, Rondeau, Virelai, Ballade, Chanson, Villancico, Frottola, and Lied.

Although focus on the vocals was a trademark of Renaissance music, the arrival of new technology greatly facilitated people's abilities to create and distribute their music. Musical instruments introduced in the Renaissance enabled composers' imaginations to be demonstrated in full, which subsequently enabled change in music. Common instruments were (including new and old instruments to the time): Wind instruments—the recorder, flute, trumpet, sackbut, cornett, shawm, curtal, crumhorn, and cornemuse; Plucked stringed instruments—the guitar, harp, lute, vihuela, cittern, bandora, and the orpharion; Bowed stringed instruments—fiddles and viols; Keyboard—the church organ, regal, clavichord, harpischord, virginal, and spinet; and finally, Percussion—the timpani, tabor, side drum, cymbals, and xylophone. Another change during the Renaissance which also changed music was the invention of new printing technology. This enabled composers to distribute and teach their music without the restraints of expenses or strenuous labors.

By no standards was Renaissance music an immense revolution of its art or a prolific time of iconic composers, but it is certain that musical discoveries, new styles, instruments, and technology all made their contributions and appearances during the Renaissance, which enables the music of that time to contain at least some uniqueness. Although musical change was gradual and not overly substantial, change is discernable and no doubt gave aid to the great talents who were to come. (All previous sources)

Louis XIV of France | Blog 2-5

Louis XIV of France stands alone as the monarch of the longest reign in European history, and is one of the most notable rulers in European history. Louis' reign is often regarded as the epitome of totalitarianism, as his precise rule was largely controlled by his own hand. Despite the high possibilities for problems due to Louis' very personally-involved style of kingship, France attained the rank of one of the most powerful countries in Europe in the time of Louis XIV. Louis did his best to pull France out of the adversity of the middle ages, and arguably in every way, he succeeded. Under Louis, lifestyle in France reached perhaps the highest, and most luxurious standards.

Louis XIV

The Black Death | Blog 2-3

Sweeping across the medieval world in what seemed to be no time at all, the undecipherable pandemic known as the Black Death (also Black Plague) tormented Europe, Asia, and the Middle East for centuries. Believed to be the bubonic plague, the specifics of the Black Death remain uncertain. However, it is certain that around the fourteenth century, and outbreak of a plague occurred in Asia. Then, it is speculated, fleas feeding off the infected blood of rats somehow traveled on a merchant ship, spreading the disease to Europe. There are certain aspects of the epidemic researchers aren't sure of, but we do know that it wreaked havoc unlike anything else in the history of the world.

When the plague reached Europe, no-one knew it was upon them. Life continued as normal, those infected had no knowledge of the capacity of the plague, or its contagiousness, so families ate together, townspeople continued to interact with other townspeople, and all the while the disease traveled like wildfire. However, those who became infected would die within a week, so after the widespread death, it became apparent something was going on. The symptoms of the Black Death became very apparent as the disease continued to decimate insurmountable amounts of people.


Although death came quick to those infected by the Black Death, the week preceding the death would be nothing short of excruciating. Symptoms disguised the plague as the flu, as in the first few days after receiving the disease, high fevers, coughing up blood, nausea, vomiting, and headaches were typical. Although there were several symptoms involved with the Black Death, one in particular seemed to define its severity: large, pus and blood oozing "boils" called buboes (swelling of the lymph nodes) were characteristic of the disease. Numerous buboes would form on a victim's neck, groin region, and armpits - each being extremely sensitive.

While the plague was at its highest level of intensity, doctors and physicians were inept; nothing could be done for the ill. Individuals, including leaders of countries, offered the conclusion that the Black Death was God's punishment unto the world. During the winter, the plague would become dormant, only to revive itself in the spring; this flux would continue for centuries, killing millions upon millions.

Horrox, Rosemary. The Black Death. Manchester University Press, 1994.

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Cantor, Norman F. In the Wake of the Plague: The Black Death and the World it Made. HarperCollins, 2002.

Saint Nicholas | Blog 2-1

In our time, particularly in America and Europe, and even more particular, around Christmas time, the iconic figure known only (to most) as Santa is a symbol of Christmas. His figure decorates our windows, our Christmas trees, our presents, our clothes, our candy... the list goes on. The question lies, how did it come to this? How did a concept of mythic proportions tangle itself so deeply in our lives? Well, over time - when the circumstances are right - fact can eventually become fable.

Although it is widely believed that there was a real "Santa", little is known about him. The real Santa, St. Nicholas, was in fact a Christian saint (of course, giving him the title St. Nicholas) and during his time was a highly respected member of the clergy. Born in Greece during the third century, Nicholas' father and other both died while he was still young, leading him to be raised by his uncle.

St. Nicholas earned his name, according to legend, by stealing into the night and leaving gifts in homes of children, or in children's rooms. Although this would be his most distinguishing factor of good works, he also was known for aiding the needy, sick, and others in suffering. His name served as an example of good and kindness; stories of him were passed along, and managed to survive all the way to our era.

St. Nicholas was such an influential and renowned individual of the church that hundreds of churches were built in his dedication, as well as countless mosaics and stain-glass windows created in his honor.

Tompert, Ann. Saint Nicholas. Boyd's Mills Press, 2001.

Martin Ebon. Saint Nicholas: Life and Legend. Harper & Row, 1975.

Nur al-Din | Blog 1-6

Nur al-Din, also known as Nur ad-Din, was an influential and famous Muslim, whose life took place from 1118 to 1174. During his lifetime, the renowned Crusades were taking place, specifically the Second Crusade. Although Nur al-Din's significance in the Second Crusade was not little, he took an even more important role in the overall fight against the Christian forces. Nur al-Din's example as a man of justice, wisdom, and respect, was not exclusively for Muslims, but also for his enemies.

After the murder of Nur al-Din's father, Imad ad-Din Zengi (a fervent opponent of the crusaders), Nur al-Din assumed his rule over Aleppo, while his brother, Saif ad-Din Ghazi I, took kingship of Mosul. Nur al-Din did not waste time during his reign; he launched an attack on the Principality of Antioch, a crusader state. Additionally, Nur al-Din held his own when an effort to recover the once-crusader state County of Edessa was ensued by Joscelin II.

From early in his reign, it had been a goal of Nur al-Din to ally Muslim forces in order to focus on the challenge of the crusaders as opposed to each other. Fulfilling his hope to some extent, Nur al-Din established a treaty with the governer of Damascus, Mu'in ad-Din Unur. When the Christian forces came upon Damascus in 1148, resulting in the aid of Nur al-Din and his forces. Nur al-Din led attacks against the crusaders and crusader territories, which landed him a certain amount of importance and respect.

Nur al-Din took control of Mosul and Aleppo in 1149 upon the death of his brother, despite an heir to rulership. Nur al-Din is perhaps most famous for uniting the Muslims of Syria and Egypt, which aided the Muslim forces tremendously.

Phillips, Jonathan. The Second Crusade: Extending the Frontiers of Christendom. Yale University Press, 2007.

Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Crusades: A History. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2005.

Justinian | Blog 1-5

In the capitol of the Byzantine Empire - Constantinople - the giant hippodrome rested with great importance; religion, political affairs, and entertainment are united with the pounding of horse hooves. Riots often erupt, as specific political views and fans were organized by color: the Blues and Greens held dominance , while the Reds and Whites were of less importance. In the year 532, during the reign of Justinian, various individuals who took part in the hippodrome activities were hanged for murder, but two escape; a Green and a Blue. The two hide in a church, guarded by a surrounding mob, and they're not happy. However, the series of twenty-four races taking place at that time continued, but riots broke out against Justinian. The riots

Eleanor of Aquitaine | Blog 1-4

Although we study occurrences, battles, warriors, diplomats, and influential individuals of our past, there are those throughout history who provoke something more. They are the individuals who we remember without excessive study, or purposefully memorizing. Eleanor of Aquitaine is an individual who we remember and write about, not because of her good deeds or her heroism, but simply because of her interesting life, personality, relationships, and other distinguishing dimensions.


Eleanor of Aquitaine is a name which could quite possibly most accurately describe female dominance, wealth, and uniqueness of disposition. Throughout her lifetime, Eleanor was the Queen of England, Queen of France, Duchess of Aquitaine, and mother of two kings of England. In 1122 Eleanor of Aquitaine was born of Aenor of Chatellerault and the duke of Aquitaine, William X. In 1137 Eleanor's father died, leaving Aquitaine in Eleanor's hands at only fifteen years of age. Also that year, Eleanor married the heir to the throne of France, Louis, who became king soon after their marriage, with the death of his father.

Louis and Eleanor bore only two daughters throughout their marriage, which meant no male heir to the throne, which is widely believed to be the reason for the breakdown of their marriage. As all this was happening during the High Middle Ages, the crusades were part of the goings-on during that time. Louis did not take part in the Second Crusade with just his army, but also with Eleanor and other accompanying women. During the events of the crusade, including the voyage and departing, it is rumored that the marriage of Eleanor and Louis was beginning to see signs of failure, and, also rumored, she and he departed the crusade on separate ships.

Ball, Margaret. Duchess of Aquitaine: A Novel of Eleanor. Macmillan Publishing, 2007.

Weir, Alison. Eleanor of Aquitaine: A Life. Ballantine Books, 2001.

Halley's Comet | Blog 1-3

The year 1066: A battle is about to take place - the Battle of Hastings - between the conqueror from Normandy, William the Conqueror, and the self-proclaimed king of England, King Harold II. This battle and previous conflicts were ignited by the death of Edward the Confessor, in early 1066. However, something happened before the battle: seen over England for several nights was a bright light, determined by many to be an omen. It was most likely only known by some, that this bright light was in fact a comet, later known as Halley's Comet, and now also referred to as 1p/Halley.

Halley's Comet is perhaps the most renowned periodic comet of all time. This comet is the only which can be seen by the naked eye from earth, however, only every 75-76 years. The comet was first discovered by Edmond Halley, or more specifically, its reappearances first predicted by Halley, consequently the comet was christened Halley's Comet. Edmond Halley, 1656 - 1742, was an English astronomer and good friend of Sir Isaac Newton. Halley actually employed Newton's theory of gravity to explain his own theory. Halley's theory suggested that the bright comets of 1531, 1607, and 1682 were all in fact the same comet. Edmond developed this theory when he noticed that the bright lights in sky of those dates had similar orbits, which led him to investigate and predict the next appearance to be in the year 1758.

Oddly enough, Edmond died before he could actually witness his prediction. But on Christmas night, 1758, the comet was seen once more, fulfilling the astronomer's incredible prediction. Subsequently, Halley's Comet was (and is) the first whose orbit was acknowledged as periodic. As the comet's period recognized, many other appearances can be noted, such as: in 240 BC, the Chinese recorded sightings of a "broom star"; in 163 and 87 BC recorded on Babylonian cuneiform tablets; in 12 BC, again by the Chinese, a "sparkling star" is seen. Many other recurrences of the comet, all in sync with Edmond Halley's testings, have been recorded, the latest being in 1986. However, of all appearances, the one in 1066 is the most famous.

Kronk, Gary W. Cometography: A Catolog of Comets. Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Malam, John. The Battle of Hastings. Cherrytree Books Publishing, 2007.

Blog 1-2 | Charlemagne

The beginning of the Middle Ages is generally marked during the 5th century, or more specifically after the fall of the Western Roman Empire; however the exact date is disputed and uncertain (early 6th century is also a common starting point). The Italian peninsula, and the rest of the Western Roman Empire (during the fifth century), is taken over by barbarians and Germanic tribes. One Germanic tribe in particular, the Lombards, allied with other tribes and proceeded to invade and conquer northern Italy, continuing to capture a large portion of Italy, holding power until the invasion of the Franks led by Charlemagne.

Charlemagne, most likely born in either 742 or 747 (both commonly accepted dates), was the son of Pepin the Short: King of the Franks. Although Pepin controlled a very large portion of Europe, there were, at the time, many other empires of great strength; for example, Byzantine. When the time of Pepin's death arrived in 768, a family rule had already been set up, enabling Charlemagne and Carloman (Charlemagne's brother) to assume divided kingship of the Frankish Kingdom. The two brothers did not get along exceptionally, and a likely war between the two was avoided with the death of Carloman in 771. This left the reunified Frankish Kingdom, and what soon came to be the Carolingian Empire, in the hands of Charlemagne.

Throughout the entirety of Charlemagne's reign, numerous conquests were undertaken, the majority of which were led by Charlemagne himself. Early in Charlemagne's sole reign, a request was sent for the aid of the Franks against Lombardy (since the Lombards were invading the papal states), located on the Italian peninsula. Charlemagne soon captured Pavia, a fortified city of Lombardy, and undertook kingship of the Lombards. Charlemagne held extensive conquests and campaigns against the Saxons (lasting approx. 30 years), Italy, Spain/the Moors (the only goal he failed to accomplish), Bavaria, the Avars, and the Slavs. Charlemagne was no doubt a strategic and fierce warrior; his leadership could not be mistaken.

Charlemagne's biographer was Einhard (also Eginhard), whose work was simply titled: (translated) "The Life of Charlemagne". It is this work which the most accurate information of events correlating to Charlemagne can be derived from; however, some minor aspects of Charlemagne's character and situations involving Charlemagne (for example, his daughter's immoralities) may be biased so as to not embarrass the king. Charlemagne was known to be a very devout Christian and protector of Christianity. Also, as Charlemagne was illiterate (due to a lack of education as a youth), he sought an education not only for himself, but also for his empire. Charlemagne created a educational center at the city of Aachen, causing the flourishing of scholarship throughout Western Europe. Building projects, such as cathedrals, bridges, and other public structures, were also encompassed in Charlemagne's accomplishments.

Charlemagne is recognized in history, and dubbed "the Great", for his extraordinary ability to escape the typical; he wasn't an all out warrior like Attila the Hun; however he also wasn't restricted to just education. Charlemagne was not just the conquerer, but the educator and the innovator.

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Collins, Roger. Charlemagne. University of Toronto Press, 1998.

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Einhard. The Life of Charlemagne. Kessinger Publishing, 2004.

Comparison of Islam and Christianity

In our modern day, the two largest religions are Christianity and Islam. These religions connect with a number of similar aspects; however, they also are separated by clear distinctions. Both are derived from Judaism and continue to retain values of Judaism, one value in particular, the monotheistic belief of the one and only powerful being, God. On the Christian side there is of course the Trinity, but I'm not going to get too fastidious. As well as sharing the belief of God (in Islamic beliefs He is called Allah), partisans of Islam and Christianity hold to the belief that God created the world and cares about the lives of all humans.

Although there are disagreements of beliefs between Muslims and Christians, Muslims do believe that Jesus existed without sin, and that He ascended bodily to heaven. However, Muslims believe Jesus was just another prophet of God, and that Muhammad was the final prophet who set the record straight, in the sense of what God has commanded us to believe. From the time of the Prophet Muhammad (around 1,300 years ago) the association of Islam and Christianity has been anything but agreeable.

There are five central tenets of Islam, known as the Five Pillars (different sects of Islam may have added to these five tenets, depending on the sect). The center of all the tenets is the first tenet, which reads: There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is the Prophet of God. Allah refers to God in Arabic. The remaining tenets (translated) are as follows: daily prayer in the direction of Mecca, alms-giving, fasting during the month of Ramadan, and finally, the pilgrimage to Mecca.

Comparison grids of Islam and Christianity can be found here and here; I will list the beliefs and doctrines of these comparisons which I see as most important relative to this blog. Muslims and Christians

B. Kataregga, D. Shenk. Islam and Christianity. Uzima Publishing House, 1980.

Spencer, Harold. Islam and the Gospel of God: A Comparison of the Central Doctrines of Christianity and Islam. I.S.P.C.K., 1976.

Not Finished.

The Muslim Conquest of Byzantium

Long ago, a man named Muhammad claimed to have received a vision from Gabriel, informing him that he was to be God’s messenger, consequently spreading the word of what would be known as the religion of Islam. Islam, at first, grew slowly; however it would soon become one of the largest beliefs, as Muslims - partisans of Islam - would endeavor to conquer new lands. These conquests came to be known as the Arab Muslim Conquests (also Islamic Conquests/Arab Conquests). One certain location which experienced great loss was Byzantium (Byzantine), part of the Roman Empire.

The Islamic Conquests were begun by the Rashidun, the four Rightly Guided Caliphs, and were the cause of the massive spreading of Islam throughout the Mediterranean and European territories. The conflict between Byzantium and the Muslims is known as the Byzantine-Arab Wars. Byzantium was an empire, appropriately called the Byzantine Empire, whose capital of Constantinople was located on the Bosporus. The Byzantine Empire is another title to represent the Eastern half of the Roman Empire.

Previous to the initial conflict between the Muslims and the Byzantine Empire there was separate, lasting conflict between Byzantium and Persia (under the Sassanid dynasty). This conflict is often claimed to be the cause of Byzantium's incompetence to resist the Islamic force, as Byzantium resources were drained. The emperor of Byzantium was Heraclius at the time of the opening conflict, and at the head of the Islamic force was the Prophet Muhammad. Although the territory dominated by the Byzantium Empire was not completely taken by Muslim force, much of it was taken into the possession of Islam.

The Byzantium-Muslim Wars were long lasting, as the initial conflict prevailed from 634 - 717. Major conflicts of the wars included the First and Second Arab Sieges of Constantinople, in which naval, defensive, and land forces were ensued against one another; and as the Muslim force attempted to take Constantinople, the Byzantine armies attempted to hold their own, in retaliation to growing Islam. Throughout the lengthy struggle many caliphs continued to fight against Byzantium, retaining loyalty to Islamic faith. In correlation with the lengthiness of the war, long lasting effects persisted for both Arab and Byzantine provinces. Africa and the Middle East were claimed by the Arabs, leaving the Byzantine Empire with very significant loss of territory.

Gordon, Matthew. The Rise of Islam. Greenwood Publishing, 2005.

Kaegi, Walter Emil. Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests. Cambridge University Press, 1992.

The Shia and Sunni Sects of Islam

The religion of Islam, within Islamic beliefs, was initiated by the Prophet Muhammad's vision from Gabriel and his subsequent teachings. Muslims hold to the belief that Muhammad was God's last prophet. The Qur'an, the Holy Book of Islam, is believed to have been revealed to Muhammad, along with the primary beliefs commanded by God. Practises of Islam include the Five Pillars, which are five mandatory duties to live as a Muslim. In addition to being one of the oldest religions, Islam is on of the largest, boasting well over one billion Muslims.

"The 50 years after Muhammad's death witnessed a succession of caliphs who attempted to carry the Prophet's message forward." (Rogerson)

When Muhammad died of an illness, disagreement and conflict broke out due to the wide inquiring of who should succeed Muhammad as head of the Muslim population. Two people were nominated, the first being Abu Bakr, Muhammad's friend and associate, and the second Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. Followers soon joined each individual. As a result, the two Muslim sects were formed. These sects were known as, and continue to be known as, Shia and Sunni. These events set the precedent for resulting conflicts within Islam.


In modern times, Shiite and Sunni Muslims continue to hold on to their disdain for each other. To this day, there are still differences in practices, traditions, customs, and beliefs, among others. Roughly, the vast majority of Muslims are Sunni; estimated to be around 85%, leaving the Shia/Shiite Muslims with 15% of the Muslim population.

Within Sunni beliefs, Abu Bakr was the rightful and sole succesor of furthering the life of Islam and Muhammad's teachings. The Sunnis also follow the rightly guided caliphs, which is known as Rashidun. These rightly guided caliphs are the four caliphs, or successors, after Muhammed. On the contrary, Muslims of the Shia sect hold to the belief that Muhammed's cousin and son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib (or Mhammad Ali), was the divinely and specifically chosen successor of Muhammad.

Rogerson, Barnaby. The Heirs of Muhammad : Islam's First Century and the Origins of the Sunni-shia Split. London: Overlook Press, 2007.

Khan, Arshad. Islam, Muslims, and America: Understanding the Basis of their Conflict. Algora publishing.